These revolutions promised governance accountable to the people rather than monarchs. However, recent political trends have exposed cracks in the foundations of liberal democracy, as nationalism and populism erode the very principles that gave rise to modern democracies. These apparent flaws were exposed during the French Revolution. This post examines the history of liberal democracy from its Enlightenment roots to its apparent decline, detailing the key moments, shifts, and consequences at each phase.

 Enlightenment Foundations of Liberal Democracy

The intellectual foundations of liberal democracy emerged during the 17th and 18th centuries, rooted in Enlightenment. The Enlightenment thinkers questioned the divine right of kings and the established political order. John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Baron de Montesquieu were among the leading philosophers of the day. Challenging monarchical authority and emphasized human reason, individual rights, and representative government.

John Locke

Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (1689) introduced the radical idea that governments are created by social contracts. These ‘contracts’ protected life, liberty, and property by design. This marked a significant shift from the belief that monarchs were divinely ordained. Locke’s theories would later be reflected in the American Revolution and serve as a blueprint for the U.S. Constitution. The consequences of his ideas were far-reaching. By creating a philosophical foundation that justified the overthrow of tyrannical rulers. They promoted governance by the consent of the governed as the proper means for self government (Locke, 1980).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) advanced the notion that political legitimacy stems from the collective will of the people. This represented  a stark contrast to autocratic regimes. Rousseau argued that true freedom could only exist when individuals subordinated themselves to the general will.

As a precursor to modern democracy Rousseau’s ideas inspired revolutionary movements. They also carried dangerous potential when misinterpreted. For instance, the French Revolution, initially inspired by Rousseau’s ideas, warped into the Reign of Terror.  The concept of the general will was bent into extreme violence against political opponents. An authoritarian regime replaced the authoritarian monarchy. Thus turning the philosophical ideal of government by the majority upside-down.

Baron de Montesquieu

Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws (1748) further developed the Enlightenment’s political ideals by advocating the separation of powers. His belief in distinct branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—was pivotal in shaping modern democratic systems, preventing any one institution from monopolizing power (Montesquieu, 1989). This model influenced the formation of constitutions across Europe and America, marking a permanent shift in how power was distributed and checked.

The intellectual legacy of these Enlightenment thinkers laid the groundwork for political revolutions and the establishment of democratic systems, although the real-world consequences of their ideas were not always straightforward or without conflict. As these ideals spread, they often collided with entrenched social structures and monarchies resistant to change.

Liberal Democracy: The Political Revolutions of the 18th Century

The rise of liberal democracy moved from theory to practice during the American and French Revolutions of the 18th century. These revolutions were pivotal in transforming Enlightenment philosophy into concrete political systems, but they also revealed the challenges in realizing these

ideals.

Political Revolutions based on Liberal Democracy

American

The American Revolution (1775–1783) was fueled by the desire to break free from British imperial rule and establish a government rooted in democratic principles. The Declaration of Independence (1776) famously asserted that all men are created equal, with rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (Jefferson, 1776).

Yet, the reality of this democratic experiment was more complicated. While the U.S. Constitution (1787) established a system of checks and balances inspired by Montesquieu’s ideas, the new nation maintained systems of inequality, particularly slavery, which contradicted the democratic ideals professed by its founders. The consequences of this contradiction would be felt for centuries, culminating in the Civil War (1861–1865) and the long struggle for civil rights.

French

The French Revolution (1789–1799) similarly drew on Enlightenment ideas to challenge monarchical rule and establish a government based on liberty, equality, and fraternity. The revolution’s initial successes, such as the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), were groundbreaking in articulating universal human rights.

However, the revolution also descended into chaos and violence, particularly during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), when thousands were executed in the name of the general will. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who declared himself emperor in 1804, marked a reversal of many of the democratic gains achieved during the revolution.

The American and French revolutions demonstrated both the potential and the perils of attempting to implement Enlightenment ideals in practice. While they succeeded in breaking down old systems of monarchical rule, they also highlighted the instability and fragility of newly formed democracies. The consequences of these revolutions continued to shape political thought and action for centuries, inspiring subsequent movements toward democratic governance across the globe.

Expansion and Challenges: Liberal Democracy in the 19th and 20th Centuries

The rise of democracy continued throughout the 19th century, particularly in Europe and the Americas, where demands for political representation, civil liberties, and national self-determination gained momentum.

Liberal Democracy begins to decay in the 19th Century

The revolutions of 1848, often called the “Springtime of Nations,” were a series of uprisings across Europe that aimed to dismantle autocratic rule and establish democratic governments. While these revolutions largely failed in the short term, they laid the groundwork for future democratic reforms, such as the unification of Italy and Germany later in the century.

The US Civil War as a Threat to Liberal Democracy

In the United States, the Civil War (1861–1865) was a defining moment in the struggle to reconcile democratic ideals with entrenched systems of inequality. The war resulted in the abolition of slavery and the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which aimed to secure civil rights for all citizens.

However, the Reconstruction era that followed was marked by severe setbacks, including the rise of Jim Crow laws that perpetuated racial inequality. The consequences of these failures to fully implement democratic ideals would continue to reverberate into the 20th and 21st centuries, as the struggle for civil rights persisted.

In the 20th century, the rise of liberal democracy faced new challenges from both communism and fascism. The Russian Revolution of 1917 established a communist regime that rejected liberal democracy in favor of authoritarian rule. Meanwhile, the rise of fascist regimes in Italy, Germany, and Spain during the 1920s and 1930s posed a direct threat to democratic governance.

Adolf Hitler’s ascent to power in 1933 and the subsequent outbreak of World War II demonstrated how fragile democracy could be in the face of militarized nationalism and totalitarianism. The Holocaust and other atrocities committed by Nazi Germany underscored the catastrophic consequences of abandoning democratic principles in favor of extreme nationalism and racial purity.

Post-World War II: The Triumph of Liberal Democracy and Its Fragility

In the aftermath of World War II, liberal democracy appeared to have triumphed over fascism and totalitarianism. The United Nations, formed in 1945, enshrined principles of human rights, self-determination, and international cooperation.

Cold War Management of European and Asian Democracy

The establishment of democratic governments in West Germany and Japan, along with the spread of democracy in post-colonial nations, suggested that liberal democracy had become the dominant political system. The Marshall Plan, which aided the reconstruction of war-torn Europe, further demonstrated the United States’ commitment to promoting democracy and free markets.

The Cold War: Irrational Fear of Communism Threatens Liberal Democracy

However, the Cold War (1947–1991) revealed the ongoing tension between liberal democracy and authoritarian regimes. The defining of the ideological conflict between the democratic West and the communist East arose in the late 1940’s C.E. Of particular interest was the West’s fear of the Soviet Union, defined much of the mid-20th century.

Western democracies apparently prevailed with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. However  this victory masked underlying issues that would later resurface. Democracy during this period, particularly in Eastern Europe and Latin America, often faced significant challenges. Fed by fear the consequences including economic instability and weak political institutions ran amok.

Francis Fukuyama’s declaration of “the end of history” posited that liberal democracy had triumphed as the final form of government. This miscalculation reflected the optimism of the post-Cold War era (Fukuyama, 1992). This optimism would soon be challenged by the rise of authoritarianism and populism in the 21st century. Many democracies began to backslide into illiberalism, including the United States and much of Western Europe.

The Fall of Liberal Democracy: The Resurgence of Nationalism

In recent decades, the rise of liberal democracy has given way to a resurgence of nationalism and authoritarianism. The Brexit vote in 2016, for example, marked a significant retreat from liberal democratic ideals in favor of nationalist sentiment, as the United Kingdom chose to leave the European Union. This decision was driven in large part by populist rhetoric that framed the EU

as a threat to national sovereignty and economic self-interest. The consequences of Brexit have been profound, leading to political and economic uncertainty both in the UK and across Europe.

United States and “America First” Nationalism

In the United States, the election of Donald Trump in 2016 signaled a dramatic shift away from liberal democratic norms. Trump’s populist message centered around “America First,” resonated with voters who felt left behind by globalization and economic inequality. His presidency was marked by attacks on democratic institutions, including the judiciary and the free press, as well as attempts to undermine the integrity of the electoral process. The insurrection at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, exemplified the fragility of American democracy in the face of authoritarianism and nationalist extremism.

Global Nationalism

Globally, the rise of authoritarian leaders such as Victor Orbán in Hungary, Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey reflects a broader trend of democratic backsliding. These leaders have undermined democratic institutions, curtailed civil liberties, and promoted nationalist ideologies that prioritize the state over individual rights.

Conclusion: The Fragility of Liberal Democracy

The history of liberal democracy has been marked by periods of great progress and profound setbacks. From its Enlightenment foundations to the revolutions of the 18th century, democracy promised a new era of governance based on the rights of individuals and the rule of law. However, the rise of nationalism and authoritarianism in the 21st century threatens to undo many of these gains.

The consequences of these developments are far-reaching, as liberal democracy continues to face existential challenges. The rise of populism, economic inequality, and the erosion of democratic norms all point to a future where the principles of liberal democracy may no longer hold sway. Understanding the details of this history is crucial, for as history has shown, the decline of democracy often leads to a darker, more authoritarian world. Without a renewed commitment to democratic ideals, the future of liberal democracy remains uncertain.

The question remains open; will we the people stand by and watch the Neo-Liberals create an authoritarian oligarchy or will we fight to maintain our Constitutional rights? The choice is yours!

 Sources Cited

Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the last man. Free Press.

Jefferson, T. (1776). Declaration of Independence. National Archives.

https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript

Locke, J. (1980). Second treatise of government (C. B. Macpherson, Ed.). Hackett Publishing.

Montesquieu, C. de S. (1989). The spirit of the laws (A. M. Cohler, B. C. Miller, & H. S. Stone, Eds. & Trans.). Cambridge University Press.

Rousseau, J.-J. (1968). The social contract (M. Cranston, Trans.). Penguin Books.

 Suggestions for Further Reading

Dunn, J. (1984). Locke: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

A concise introduction to Locke’s contributions to political philosophy, especially his thoughts on liberty and government.

Israel, J. I. (2001). Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the making of modernity, 1650–1750. Oxford University Press.

This book explores the radical currents of the Enlightenment that challenged traditional political and religious institutions.

Keane, J. (2009). The life and death of democracy. W.W. Norton & Company.

A comprehensive history of democracy from its ancient roots to modern challenges.

Mazower, M. (2012). Governing the world: The history of an idea. Penguin Press.

Mazower traces the evolution of international governance from the Enlightenment to today, providing critical insights into how global cooperation impacts democracy.

Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Harvard University Press.

This book addresses the rise of populism and authoritarianism, offering strategies for revitalizing liberal democracy.

Pinker, S. (2018). Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress. Viking.

Pinker defends the Enlightenment ideals of reason and democracy, providing evidence of their successes in modern society.

Runciman, D. (2018). How democracy ends. Profile Books.

Runciman explores the vulnerabilities of modern democracy and what might come after its decline.

Sandel, M. (2020). The tyranny of merit: What’s become of the common good?. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

A critique of meritocratic systems that have exacerbated inequality, undermining democratic values.

Disclaimer: The images and videos in this post are AI-generated creations, intended purely for illustrative and conceptual purposes. They are not real-life representations and should not be interpreted as such. Their sole purpose is to offer a visual means of exploring the topics discussed in this post.